Adderall Abuse and Addiction

Adderall is the brand name of a stimulant drug made up of a proprietary blend of amphetamine and dextroamphetamine.  It is believed to work by increasing the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain.

The effects felt when using the drug include loss of fatigue, increased alertness and concentration, better cognitive ability, and heightened libido.  It is commonly prescribed for the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, and sometimes for depression.

Adderall is listed as a Schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act.  This means that it has a high potential for prescription drug abuse and drug addiction.

Prolonged use can lead to increased tolerance (needing more of the drug to achieve the same effect) and withdrawal (an intense craving for the drug along with physical and psychological distress) when use is stopped.  Continued use, especially over-use, can lead to the pathological conditions of drug abuse and drug dependence.

Extremely high doses, or high doses over a prolonged period of time, can result in a very serious condition known as amphetamine psychosis.

Adderral abuse and dependence often occurs when the drug is over-used for the treatment of commonly prescribed conditions such as fatigue, obesity, and depression.  Adderall has also become a favorite “study drug” in colleges and universities because of its ability to help the user focus their concentration and study for very long periods of time.

Many abusers were originally prescribed the drug for childhood ADHD, and then continued to use the drug in later life for reasons other than those for which it was prescribed, such as concentration, weight loss, and performance enhancement.

One study estimates that as many as 14% of college students abuse some form of ADHD drug like Adderall.

Withdrawal from chronic abuse of Adderall can include anxiety, depression, fatigue, excessive sleeping, increased anger and rage, and even psychosis and suicidal thoughts.  Physical effects can include heart palpitations, irregular heartbeat, uncontrollable tremors, sweating, and more serious cardiac symptoms.

As with most stimulants, users who take high doses of the drug over a prolonged period of time will eventually “crash.”

This occurs when their bodies and minds are simply too fatigued to continue, sometimes after days and even weeks of continuous use.  Heavy users will often turn to other drugs such as benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and even illegal opiates such as heroin, to help soothe the effects of withdrawal.

Treatment for chronic Adderall abuse or dependence often requires medical detoxification, a period of rehabilitation from the physical effects, a period of psychotherapeutic counseling to deal with the mental and emotional effects, and possible psychopharmacological treatment to assist in re-regulating the effects of disrupted brain function.

Benzodiazepine Abuse and Addiction

A benzodiazepine is a psychoactive drug whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring.  The first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide (Librium), was discovered accidentally by Leo Sternbach in 1955, and made available in 1960 by Hoffmann–La Roche, which has also marketed diazepam (Valium) since 1963.

Benzodiazepines are commonly misused and are often taken in combination with other drugs of abuse.

Benzodiazepines enhance the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) which results in sedative, hypnotic (sleep-inducing), anxiolytic (anti-anxiety), anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant and amnesic effect.  These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety, insomnia, agitation, seizures, muscle spasms, alcohol withdrawal and as a premedication for medical or dental procedures.

In general, benzodiazepines are safe for short term use, although cognitive impairments and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition occasionally occur.

Long-term use has adverse psychological and physical effects, decreasing effectiveness, physical dependence, and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome.

Benzodiazepines overdoses can cause dangerous deep unconsciousness.  However, they are much less toxic than barbiturates, and death rarely occurs when a benzodiazepine is the only drug taken.  When combined with other central nervous system depressants such as alcohol and opiates, the potential for toxicity increases.

The long-term adverse effects of benzodiazepines include a general deterioration in physical and mental health and tend to increase with time.

Adverse effects can include cognitive impairment such as feelings of turmoil, difficulty in thinking constructively, increased anxiety, and depression.  Behavioral problems also occur, such as loss of sex-drive, agoraphobia and social phobia, loss of interest in leisure pursuits and interests, and an inability to experience or express feelings.  An altered perception of self, environment and relationships may also occur.

The most frequent symptoms of withdrawal from benzodiazepines are insomnia, gastric problems, tremors, agitation, fearfulness, and muscle spasms.  Other effects include irritability, sweating, depersonalization, derealization, hypersensitivity to stimuli, depression, suicidal behavior, psychosis, seizures and delirium tremens.

Severe symptoms usually occur as a result of abrupt withdrawal, so medically supervised detoxification is recommended.

Approximately 10% of patients will experience a protracted withdrawal syndrome, which can last for many months or longer.  This phenomenon is known as "benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome."  Symptoms do gradually lessen over time, eventually disappearing altogether.

Benzodiazepines are considered to be major drugs of abuse.

Benzodiazepines are used recreationally and by drug abusers, with abuse mostly limited to individuals who abuse other drugs.  Benzodiazepine abuse ranges from occasional binges on large doses, to chronic and compulsive drug abuse of high doses.  Mortality rates are higher among drug abusers that use benzodiazepines, particularly among heavy alcohol users.

Both long-term and short-term use have the potential to cause physical and psychological dependence and severe withdrawal symptoms.

Dependence and tolerance can also develop rapidly, with benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome occurring after as little as three weeks of continuous use.  Withdrawal symptoms include depression, anxiety, panic attacks, and agoraphobia, among others.

Meperidine Abuse and Addiction

Meperdine (Demerol, Pethedine, Lidol, Pethanol, Alodan and Dispadol) is a fast-acting opioid analgesic drug used for the treatment of moderate to severe pain.  It is most commonly known by its brand name, Demerol.  It is administered in tablets, syrup or by intramuscular or intravenous injection.

Meperidine causes users to experience marked euphoria because it triggers the brain's pleasure centers while it blocks pain.

Meperidine's effects are felt a few minutes after ingestion and last from two to four hours.  Meperidine’s effects are similar to morphine, but with sedation, respiratory depression, and euphoria less intense than morphine.  Nausea and vomiting are common with oral use but less likely when administered by injection.

For much of the 20th century Meperidine was the opioid of choice for many physicians.

Meperidine was considered to be safer and to carry less risk of addictionthan Morphine.  It was also thought to be superior in treating pain due to its antispasmodic effects.  Physicians now consider Meperidine to be no more effective than Morphine in treating pain. In addition, its low potency, short duration, and toxicity has caused it to lose popularity in recent years.

Meperidine toxicity can result in seizures, delirium, and other serious neuropsychological effects.

The side effects of Meperidine are similar to those of other opiods: nausea, vomiting, sedation, dizziness, urinary retention and constipation. Meperidine overdose can cause muscle flaccidity, respiratory depression, cold and clammy skin, hypotension, and coma.

Fatalities have occurred with both oral and intravenous Meperidine overdose.

Serotonin syndrome, a potentially life-threatening build up of excess serotonin in the brain, has occurred in patients taking Meperidine during antidepressant therapy or with selective serotonon reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MOIs).

Despite being structurally distinct from Morphine and related opiates, Meperidine's effects on opiate receptors in the brain are similar to those of morphine.

The major hazard of Demerol is respiratory depression, but other risks include circulatory depression, respiratory arrest, shock, and cardiac arrest.

Physical tolerance and psychological dependence can develop, especially with excessive doses or long-term use.  Stopping usage abruptly after prolonged or high dosage can result in extreme fatigue and mental depression.

Medially supervised detoxification is highly recommended when experiencing Meperidine withdrawal.

Severity of withdrawal symptoms is directly related to the amount of Meperidine taken and the length of time it has been taken.  Dependence can develop after even a few weeks of regular use.  Treatment will ultimately depend on the degree of addiction.

Librium Abuse and Addiction

Librium (chlordiazepoxide) is a psychoactive benzodiazepine drug whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring.  Librium was the first benzodiazepine discovered.  It was discovered accidentally by Leo Sternbach in 1955, and made available in 1960 by Hoffmann–La Roche, which has also marketed diazepam (Valium) since 1963.

Librium is commonly misused and are often taken in combination with other drugs of abuse.

Librium enhances the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) which results in sedative, hypnotic (sleep-inducing), anxiolytic (anti-anxiety), anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant and amnesic effect.  These properties make Librium useful in treating anxiety, insomnia, agitation, seizures, muscle spasms, alcohol withdrawal and as a premedication for medical or dental procedures.

In general, Librium is safe for short term use, although cognitive impairments and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition occasionally occur.

Long-term use has adverse psychological and physical effects, decreasing effectiveness, physical dependence, and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome.

Librium overdoses can cause dangerous deep unconsciousness.  However, they are much less toxic than barbiturates, and death rarely occurs when a benzodiazepine is the only drug taken.  When combined with other central nervous system depressants such as alcohol and opiates, the potential for toxicity increases.

The long-term adverse effects of Librium include a general deterioration in physical and mental health and tend to increase with time.

Adverse effects can include cognitive impairment such as feelings of turmoil, difficulty in thinking constructively, increased anxiety, and depression.  Behavioral problems also occur, such as loss of sex-drive, agoraphobia and social phobia, loss of interest in leisure pursuits and interests, and an inability to experience or express feelings.  An altered perception of self, environment and relationships may also occur.

The most frequent symptoms of withdrawal from Librium is insomnia, gastric problems, tremors, agitation, fearfulness, and muscle spasms.  Other effects include irritability, sweating, depersonalization, derealization, hypersensitivity to stimuli, depression, suicidal behavior, psychosis, seizures and delirium tremens.

Severe symptoms usually occur as a result of abrupt withdrawal, so medically supervised detoxification is recommended.

Approximately 10% of patients will experience a protracted withdrawal syndrome, which can last for many months or longer.  This phenomenon is known as "benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome."  Symptoms do gradually lessen over time, eventually disappearing altogether.

Librium is considered to be major drugs of abuse.

Librium is used recreationally and by drug abusers, with abuse mostly limited to individuals who abuse other drugs.  Benzodiazepine abuse ranges from occasional binges on large doses, to chronic and compulsive drug abuse of high doses.  Mortality rates are higher among drug abusers that use Librium, particularly among heavy alcohol users.

Both long-term and short-term use have the potential to cause physical and psychological dependence and severe withdrawal symptoms.

Dependence and tolerance can also develop rapidly, with benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome occurring after as little as three weeks of continuous use.  Withdrawal symptoms include depression, anxiety, panic attacks, and agoraphobia, among others.

Hydromorphone Abuse and Addiction

Hydromorphoneis  a potent analgesic drug of the opioid class.  It is a semi-synthetic derivative of morphine.  It is both medically an opioid analgesic and legally a narcotic.  Hydromorphone inhibits ascending pain pathways in Central Nervous System.  It also increases the pain threshold and alters pain perception.

Like all opioids, Hydromorphone is highly addictive and is listed as a Schedule II drug in the United States.

Hydromorphone is prescribed medically as an alternative to morphine for analgesia, and as a second- or third-line narcotic antitussive (cough suppressant) for severe cases.  It is generally considered the strongest of the antitussive drugs.

Hydromorphone was developed when heroin was removed from clinical use in most of the world and banned outright in many countries.

Hydromorphone is often called "drug store heroin" on the streets.  While Hydromorphone use may sometimes be prescribed for a legitimate ailment, it is more often purchased illegally in its prescription form.  Because of its similarity to street heroin and other powerful opiates, short term abuse can lead to complete dependence in just a few days of continuous use.

Hydromorphone abusers often turn to street drugs such as heroin when their preferred drug is no longer available.

Adverse effects of Hydromorphone are similar to those of other opioid analgesics, such as morphine.  Major hazards include respiratory depression and circulatory depression.  Some more common side effects include light-headedness, dizziness, sedation, constipation, nausea, vomiting, and sweating.

Overdoses are rare in tolerant individuals, but when they do occur they can lead to complete circulatory system collapse.  The effects of overdose are increased if the medication is taken with alcohol or benzodiazepines.

The euphoria produced by Hydromorphone that is associated with relief from pain can lead to addictive reward-seeking behavior.

Withdrawal from Hydromorphone is brief but intense.  The symptoms are similar to morphine and heroin withdrawal, but they are compressed into a spike which will peak in 14 to 21 hours and resolve in 36 to 72 hours.

Withdrawal symptoms from Hydromorphone can occur four to five hours after the last dose and usually last 7 to 10 days.

To avoid severe withdrawal, Hydromorphone abusers should taper down slowly under a knowledgeable physician’s care, or participate in a medically supervised detoxification.  In cases of long term use, an in patient detox in a hospital or medical supervised setting is highly recommended.

As with all opioids, psychological dependence will continue long after physical withdrawal is complete, and psychosocial treatment is recommended.

Rohypnol Abuse and Addiction

Rohypnol is a strong hypnotic sedative, anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, amnestic, and skeletal muscle relaxant drug.  Rohypnol is sold in other countries under the trade names Flunitrazepam, Hipnosedon, Hypnodorm, Flunipam, Nilium, Vulbegal, Silece, Darkene, Ilman, Insom and Fluscand.  The street name for Rohypnol is "roofie."

Despite the fact that Rohypnol is still classified as a Schedule IV controlled substance, it is no longer commercially available in the United States.

Due to its misuse and overuse, particularly as a so-called "date rape" drug, the DEA is recommending that Rohypnol be reclassified to Schedule I.

Rohypnol was prescribed for treatment of chronic or severe insomnia in patients that were not responsive to other hypnotics.  It was intended to be administered on a short-term basis under controlled conditions such as with inpatient treatment.

Rohypnol became known as a "date rape" drug due to its high potency, sudden and strong effects, and its ability to cause amnesia during its duration.

Individuals who have been given Rohypnol without their knowledge are unable to remember events that they experienced while under the influence of the drug.  Victims of sexual assault may be unable to clearly recall the assault, the assailant, or the events surrounding the assault.

Rohypnol is also frequently as a recreational drug by high school and college students, particularly at so-called "rave parties."  It is also used by heroin or opiate users to increase the effects of these drugs or to ease the effects of withdrawal.  Cocaine and methamphetamine users often use Rohypnol to counteract insomnia, paranoia, and tremors, or to soften the so-called "crash" which follows heavy stimulant use.

Adverse effects include both physical and psychological dependence, reduced sleep quality resulting in somnolence, and overdose resulting in excessive sedation, impairment of balance and speech, respiratory failure, coma, and death.

Prolonged and high-dosage use of Rohypnol can lead to physical dependence as well as and what is known as the "benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome," which is characterized by seizures, psychosis, severe insomnia and extreme anxiety.  Rebound insomnia, worse than baseline insomnia, typically occur after discontinuation of Rohypnol, even after short term use.

Rohypnol can create paradoxical symptoms in some individuals, including anxiety, agitation, confusion, talkativeness, loss of impulse control, violent behavior, and convulsions.

Overdose of Rohypnol may result in excessive sedation, impairment of balance, and slurred speech.  Severe overdoses may result in respiratory failure, coma, and possibly death.

Risk of overdose is increased if the drug is taken in combination with depressants such as alcohol and opiates.